| "nickel" $.05; a 5 US cent coin, used proverbially to connote an insignificant sum "If I had a nickel for every time ______, I'd be rich (or a rich man)" a common construction in American English, a formula that many native speakers would recognize immediately "in the poorhouse" An old expression (early 19th century) referring to a communal house built for poor people; such houses no longer exist, but the expression remains as a synonym for "poor" "I would have a house..." for symmetry with "poor house" "next door to" literally, an adjacent building; used figuratively to mean "near" "Bill Gates" the richest man in the world as of the early 21st century; used as a synonym for "a rich man" in the formulaic expression above |
| Words in their cultural context are like stars in a constellation. |
| This was scanned from a Best Buy retail electronics outlet advertisement I received in the mail. |
| A fruitcake is made with assorted dried fruit and nuts, and so has close connections to the words fruit and nuts. These are unfortunate associations because "fruity" connotes eccentricity ("fruit" is also a slang term for homosexual), and "nuts" is a very common synonym for crazy (or mad, as the British would say). These connotations culminate in the phrase, "nutty as a fruitcake," which means eccentric, odd, or insane. |
| Immerse yourself in their culture, and the conceptual system will eventually become apparent. |
| 12 Basic Human Motivations 1 metabolism 2 bodily comforts 3 movement and transportation 4 safety and injury prevention 5 health, hygiene, and healing 6 sex and reproduction 7 growth and maturity 8 rules for interaction 9 interpersonal boundaries 10 approaches to the unseen and unknown 11 love, acceptance, and respect 12 self-expression |
| A short list of the basic reasons all people in every culture do the things they do. |
| 10 Social Differences 1 gender 2 residence 3 age 4 religion 5 political orientation 6 race or ethnicity 7 level of education 8 occupation 9 income level (may indicate social class within an occupation, e.g., corporate structure) 10 social class (may refer to education, income and occupation combined) |
| A short list of the way people are organized in a society. |
| What may have contributed to the fruitcake's status as a joke is the historical discovery of the New World, its subsequent abundance of sugar, and the invention of the refrigerator. The preservative effects of sugar on fruit gave the fruitcake a very long shelf life. Thus, in the modern age of refrigeration and a new emphasis on "freshness," people became suspicious of this preserved cake. |
| On this page: What it means to encounter culture in language. |
| Where should we go from here? Part 4 of this introduction |
Cultural Context, Connotations and Conceptual Systems
In the previous two lectures of this introduction, I have claimed that no communication takes place
without some kind of shared background; the more knowledge two people share in common, the more
effectively they can communicate. Let's call this background knowledge the cultural context of the
language. Consider these two ways of expressing one idea:
Which of these sentences is easier to understand? My guess is that (2) is clearer because it depends
less on your knowledge of American language and culture. Sentence (2) seems to communicate the
main idea, but this minimal level of communication conveys little about my attitude or the full meaning I
want to express! [Sentence (1) is explained here]. The words I chose in sentence (1) make references to
things in my culture -- "nickel," "poorhouse," "Bill Gates" -- which I assume my cultural peers will
understand and appreciate. These cultural references are explained in the margin at right.
What does it mean to "understand" the references? We could look up the word nickel, for instance, in a
dictionary and find "1. A hard silver-white metallic chemical, etc... 2. The US 5-cent piece, etc...", but this
tells us nothing of the feeling I intend to convey with the word and nothing of the associations, or
connotations, I expect the word to have in the minds of my readers. Words in their cultural context are
like stars in a constellation: they are parts of a larger picture formed by many connections to other
words and phrases. The constellation exists not in dictionaries, but in the minds of people.
Thus, we may describe our thoughts as a conceptual system with one thought connected to another
thought, connected to this word connected to that phrase, and so on. When information comes into this
system -- when we process our native language -- the information is interpreted against the system, in
terms of the system. This is how we make sense of language. And because native speakers share
similar conceptual systems, we can understand each other on a deeper level.
Let's try to make this very abstract idea a bit more concrete. How would you feel if I said I'd like to give
you a fruitcake for Christmas? Before you say thank you, let's look at how the word fruitcake is
processed according to the conceptual system in the minds of native speakers of American English...
In the previous two lectures of this introduction, I have claimed that no communication takes place
without some kind of shared background; the more knowledge two people share in common, the more
effectively they can communicate. Let's call this background knowledge the cultural context of the
language. Consider these two ways of expressing one idea:
- (1) If you gave me a nickel every time I used the word culture in this course, you would be in the
poorhouse, and I would have a house next door to Bill Gates.
(2) I use the word culture often in this course.
Which of these sentences is easier to understand? My guess is that (2) is clearer because it depends
less on your knowledge of American language and culture. Sentence (2) seems to communicate the
main idea, but this minimal level of communication conveys little about my attitude or the full meaning I
want to express! [Sentence (1) is explained here]. The words I chose in sentence (1) make references to
things in my culture -- "nickel," "poorhouse," "Bill Gates" -- which I assume my cultural peers will
understand and appreciate. These cultural references are explained in the margin at right.
What does it mean to "understand" the references? We could look up the word nickel, for instance, in a
dictionary and find "1. A hard silver-white metallic chemical, etc... 2. The US 5-cent piece, etc...", but this
tells us nothing of the feeling I intend to convey with the word and nothing of the associations, or
connotations, I expect the word to have in the minds of my readers. Words in their cultural context are
like stars in a constellation: they are parts of a larger picture formed by many connections to other
words and phrases. The constellation exists not in dictionaries, but in the minds of people.
Thus, we may describe our thoughts as a conceptual system with one thought connected to another
thought, connected to this word connected to that phrase, and so on. When information comes into this
system -- when we process our native language -- the information is interpreted against the system, in
terms of the system. This is how we make sense of language. And because native speakers share
similar conceptual systems, we can understand each other on a deeper level.
Let's try to make this very abstract idea a bit more concrete. How would you feel if I said I'd like to give
you a fruitcake for Christmas? Before you say thank you, let's look at how the word fruitcake is
processed according to the conceptual system in the minds of native speakers of American English...
In the above advertisement, we see that fruitcake is associated with gifts. Native speakers understand
that the image and words connote Christmas. There is an attempt at humor here, which can only be
understood with the cultural background knowledge that the gifts listed are either notoriously common
(sweater, bathrobe) or unwanted (cat, fruitcake).
Social Context and Changing Connotations
The advertisement above is a message intended for an audience of speakers of American English,
middle-aged or younger and predominantly male (this is called the target demographic). Retail
businesses hire advertising specialists to create appealing messages intended for the precise audience
that is likely to buy the products advertised. Therefore, advertisers are very careful about the words
they choose; it is their business to know their audience's conceptual systems. Language has a cultural
context, as noted above, and a social context, which is the background shared by social groups
defined by age, gender, geographical region, income level, etc.
Middle-aged males (such as I) will generally agree fruitcakes are unwanted gifts, but elderly females
(such as my mother), for whom this advertisement is not primarily intended, may not agree. My mother
and her peers have been joyfully giving and receiving sweaters, bathrobes, and fruitcakes as Christmas
gifts for many years (I don't think anyone wants a cat for Christmas, but that's just my opinion).
In my mother's generation, fruitcakes were more common (and possibly even welcome) as Christmas
gifts, but for many people in my generation, for whatever reason, the fruitcake has fallen into disfavor; it
is a Christmastime punch line for TV commercials and newspaper comics. Just go to Google or Yahoo!
and search the word fruitcake -- it has clearly become a joke. The fruitcake example illustrates the facts
that: Words can only be understood in their cultural context, connotations change over time, and
connotations differ somewhat according to the social context.
The graphics below illustrate constellations of connotations as they might appear in my mind (40+
year-old male), and my mother's mind (80+ year-old female):
that the image and words connote Christmas. There is an attempt at humor here, which can only be
understood with the cultural background knowledge that the gifts listed are either notoriously common
(sweater, bathrobe) or unwanted (cat, fruitcake).
Social Context and Changing Connotations
The advertisement above is a message intended for an audience of speakers of American English,
middle-aged or younger and predominantly male (this is called the target demographic). Retail
businesses hire advertising specialists to create appealing messages intended for the precise audience
that is likely to buy the products advertised. Therefore, advertisers are very careful about the words
they choose; it is their business to know their audience's conceptual systems. Language has a cultural
context, as noted above, and a social context, which is the background shared by social groups
defined by age, gender, geographical region, income level, etc.
Middle-aged males (such as I) will generally agree fruitcakes are unwanted gifts, but elderly females
(such as my mother), for whom this advertisement is not primarily intended, may not agree. My mother
and her peers have been joyfully giving and receiving sweaters, bathrobes, and fruitcakes as Christmas
gifts for many years (I don't think anyone wants a cat for Christmas, but that's just my opinion).
In my mother's generation, fruitcakes were more common (and possibly even welcome) as Christmas
gifts, but for many people in my generation, for whatever reason, the fruitcake has fallen into disfavor; it
is a Christmastime punch line for TV commercials and newspaper comics. Just go to Google or Yahoo!
and search the word fruitcake -- it has clearly become a joke. The fruitcake example illustrates the facts
that: Words can only be understood in their cultural context, connotations change over time, and
connotations differ somewhat according to the social context.
The graphics below illustrate constellations of connotations as they might appear in my mind (40+
year-old male), and my mother's mind (80+ year-old female):
| What my mother thinks of when she hears the word fruitcake. |
| What I think of when I hear the word fruitcake. |
| In my generation, for whatever reason, the fruitcake has fallen into disfavor; it is a Christmastime punch line for TV commercials and newspaper comics. |
Learning Language and Culture
Continuing the constellation analogy, there is a vast number of stars in the sky, and there is a vast number
of words and phrases in a language. Learning vocabulary and grammar is a daunting enough task, but
how then do you learn the constellations of thought in native speakers' minds? There are two short
answers: 1) Go and live for several years among the people whose language you want to learn -- immerse
yourself in their culture, and the conceptual system will eventually become apparent; 2) Stay where you
are and study the products of the target culture -- immerse yourself in their media (read, read, read).
Most of you learning English in Taiwan will not have an opportunity to spend an extended period of time in
the United States to learn its language and culture, but American media is so pervasive, I daresay no one
in Taiwan can escape it. Television, books, movies, and the Internet are boundless culture-learning
resources. Long, laborious hours of immersion in the written language, and in the interaction and dialogue
in TV shows and movies, will eventually show you the connections of one thought with another thought --
all of this culminating in the discovery of a culturally-, historically-, and socially-contexted conceptual
system. But how can we make the task more efficient? (Notice I didn't say "easier.") Where should we
begin? What should we pay attention to? These are the questions this course seeks to answer.
As you immerse yourself in American language and media, a few tools from the social sciences -- the
studies of human culture, social organization, and history -- will help you discover cultural connections in a
more efficient way. These tools will help you see a coherent big picture of culture, and serve as a guide to
analyzing the finer points and understanding them in their contexts.
Continuing the constellation analogy, there is a vast number of stars in the sky, and there is a vast number
of words and phrases in a language. Learning vocabulary and grammar is a daunting enough task, but
how then do you learn the constellations of thought in native speakers' minds? There are two short
answers: 1) Go and live for several years among the people whose language you want to learn -- immerse
yourself in their culture, and the conceptual system will eventually become apparent; 2) Stay where you
are and study the products of the target culture -- immerse yourself in their media (read, read, read).
Most of you learning English in Taiwan will not have an opportunity to spend an extended period of time in
the United States to learn its language and culture, but American media is so pervasive, I daresay no one
in Taiwan can escape it. Television, books, movies, and the Internet are boundless culture-learning
resources. Long, laborious hours of immersion in the written language, and in the interaction and dialogue
in TV shows and movies, will eventually show you the connections of one thought with another thought --
all of this culminating in the discovery of a culturally-, historically-, and socially-contexted conceptual
system. But how can we make the task more efficient? (Notice I didn't say "easier.") Where should we
begin? What should we pay attention to? These are the questions this course seeks to answer.
As you immerse yourself in American language and media, a few tools from the social sciences -- the
studies of human culture, social organization, and history -- will help you discover cultural connections in a
more efficient way. These tools will help you see a coherent big picture of culture, and serve as a guide to
analyzing the finer points and understanding them in their contexts.
Human culture, social organization, history
To illustrate, let's assume we can identify and reduce to a short list the basic reasons all people in every
culture do the things they do. Let's call this list the Basic Human Motivations. Such a list enables us to
organize and understand the cultural items we observe and to trace the language we learn back to its
cultural context. In the process of doing this, we begin to grasp the culture's world view, which is a general
way of looking at and thinking about life, including their attitudes, beliefs and values.
Now let's assume we can make a short list of the way people are organized in a society, and the ideas a
culture has about social organization. This includes prescribed roles and behavior for females and males,
educated and uneducated, old and young, and several other social differences. These social differences
are necessary knowledge because people are not only cultural creatures, but are also socially defined.
Finally, let's take into account the historical developments considered significant in the culture, and the
myriad past events -- historical accidents -- that influence the language.
Now that we are familiar with a broad, basic outline of culture, society and history, let's see where
fruitcake fits in.
Looking at the big picture of human culture, we see that religion (to use a simplified term) has a great
influence on many aspects of a culture. This is because religion is a system of beliefs, values and
attitudes, and this system influences the conceptual systems -- the constellation of thoughts -- of people in
that culture. American religion is dominated by Christianity; that religion's founder's birth is recognized on
the Christmas holiday; that holiday has traditions representing particular values of the religion, namely, the
importance of giving; this value is symbolized by the gift of fruitcake, which at one time was considered an
especially rich and delectable treat, suitable for important occasions such as weddings and Christmas.
Looking at fruitcake from a social point of view, we have seen that my age group makes fun of it, while my
mother's age group doesn't. Why this is so is not as important as your understanding that there often is
not only one meaning of a given thing in a culture. Different social groups within a culture may have
different viewpoints, attitudes, values and beliefs. On a basic level, you can identify a thing as belonging to
a particular culture, but culture and society are many-leveled, highly nuanced, and complex.
How the fruitcake ever became associated with Christmas giving, favored by elderly women and ridiculed
by middle-aged men is the result of a long chain of historical events that began thousands of years ago in
the Roman Empire. Each event contributing to the present-day connotations of the fruitcake may have
been random or purposeful (see note in the margin at left), yet each event was influenced by, was a
reaction to, something in the larger context of Western thought and culture.
To illustrate, let's assume we can identify and reduce to a short list the basic reasons all people in every
culture do the things they do. Let's call this list the Basic Human Motivations. Such a list enables us to
organize and understand the cultural items we observe and to trace the language we learn back to its
cultural context. In the process of doing this, we begin to grasp the culture's world view, which is a general
way of looking at and thinking about life, including their attitudes, beliefs and values.
Now let's assume we can make a short list of the way people are organized in a society, and the ideas a
culture has about social organization. This includes prescribed roles and behavior for females and males,
educated and uneducated, old and young, and several other social differences. These social differences
are necessary knowledge because people are not only cultural creatures, but are also socially defined.
Finally, let's take into account the historical developments considered significant in the culture, and the
myriad past events -- historical accidents -- that influence the language.
Now that we are familiar with a broad, basic outline of culture, society and history, let's see where
fruitcake fits in.
Looking at the big picture of human culture, we see that religion (to use a simplified term) has a great
influence on many aspects of a culture. This is because religion is a system of beliefs, values and
attitudes, and this system influences the conceptual systems -- the constellation of thoughts -- of people in
that culture. American religion is dominated by Christianity; that religion's founder's birth is recognized on
the Christmas holiday; that holiday has traditions representing particular values of the religion, namely, the
importance of giving; this value is symbolized by the gift of fruitcake, which at one time was considered an
especially rich and delectable treat, suitable for important occasions such as weddings and Christmas.
Looking at fruitcake from a social point of view, we have seen that my age group makes fun of it, while my
mother's age group doesn't. Why this is so is not as important as your understanding that there often is
not only one meaning of a given thing in a culture. Different social groups within a culture may have
different viewpoints, attitudes, values and beliefs. On a basic level, you can identify a thing as belonging to
a particular culture, but culture and society are many-leveled, highly nuanced, and complex.
How the fruitcake ever became associated with Christmas giving, favored by elderly women and ridiculed
by middle-aged men is the result of a long chain of historical events that began thousands of years ago in
the Roman Empire. Each event contributing to the present-day connotations of the fruitcake may have
been random or purposeful (see note in the margin at left), yet each event was influenced by, was a
reaction to, something in the larger context of Western thought and culture.